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पूर्व-आधुनिक भारत में मन्दिरों का अपवित्रीकरण

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रिचर्ड एम. ईटन : इस निबन्ध का उद्देश्य इस बात की जांच करना है कि भारत के पूर्व-आधुनिक इतिहास में किन-किन मन्दिरों का अपवित्रीकरण हुआ था, कब और किसके द्वारा हुआ था, कैसे और किस उद्देश्य से किया गया तथा धर्म और राजनीति से मन्दिर अपवित्रीकरण का क्या सरोकार है? भारतीयों द्वारा मन्दिर अपवित्रीकरण को उचित या निन्दनीय ठहराने के लिये अतीत की ओर देखना कहां तक उचित है? हिन्दू राष्ट्रवादियों द्वारा दिए गये मन्दिर अपवित्रीकरण के अधिकांश साक्ष्य फारसी स्रोतों पर आधारित है. अंग्रेजी शासन काल में सर हेनरी एम. इलियट ने जॉन डाउसन की सहायता से 1849 फारसी स्रोतों को ‘हिस्ट्री ऑफ इंडिया एज़ टोल्ड बाइ इट्स ओन हिस्टोरियन्स’ नाम से अनूदित एवं प्रकाशित किया था.

1192 में भारत में मुस्लिम राज्य का प्रादुर्भाव हुआ लेकिन मन्दिरों के अपवित्रीकरण का चलन इससे पूर्व भी प्रचलित था. यह सुविज्ञात है कि मुस्लिम राज्य की स्थापना के दो शताब्दी पूर्व के कालखण्ड में तुर्क, जिनका फारसीकरण हो चुका था, क्रमबद्ध तौर से दक्षिण एशिया के नगरों पर धावा बोलते, मन्दिरों को ध्वस्त करते तथा प्रचुर चल सम्पत्ति लूटकर अफ़गानिस्तान में अवस्थित अपने शक्ति के आधार क्षेत्रों में ले जाते थे. इस परिपाटी की शुरूआत सन् 986 में हुई जब गज़नी सुल्तान सुबुक्तगीन (977-997) ने काबुल के निकट तथा उत्तर पश्चिमी पंजाब को लूटा, मूर्तियां तोड़ी, मन्दिर ध्वस्त किये तथा काफ़िरों के वास में आग लगा दी और इस्लाम की स्थापना की. सुबुक्तगीन की अपेक्षा महमूद गज़नवी के आक्रमण ठोस भौतिक कारणों पर आधारित थे. अफ़गानिस्तान में स्थापित इन प्रारम्भिक शासकों का भारत में स्थायी शासन कायम करने का कभी इरादा भी नहीं था. वे चल-सम्पत्ति से सम्पन्न भारत के मन्दिरों तथा नगरों को लूटते थे ताकि सुदूर पश्चिम में स्थापित अपने साम्राज्य के व्यापक राजनीतिक उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति के लिये धन प्राप्त कर सकें. गज़नवी ने 1029 में ईरान के ‘रे’ शहर तथा 1026 में भारत के सोमनाथ मन्दिर को लूटा.

मोहम्मद गौरी ने भारत में स्थायी साम्राज्य की नींव डाली. मोहम्मद गौरी की धार्मिक नीति में दो प्रमुख तत्वों की पहचान की जा सकती है- (1) भारत आधारित सूफी सम्प्रदाय, चिश्ती सम्प्रदाय को राजाश्रय प्रदान करना तथा (2) चयनात्मक तौर पर मन्दिर अपवित्रीकरण की नीति चलाना. इस द्वितीय धार्मिक नीति के अन्तर्गत विजित क्षेत्र की पहचान को मिटा देना भी शामिल था. जब सत्ता की वैधता मन्दिर के गर्भगृह से आती हो तो विजेता के लिये यह आवश्यक था कि वह ऐसे राज्य के राज-मन्दिरों, जिससे उस राज्य के कुल-देवता या कुल-देवी स्थापित हों, को नष्ट कर दे तथा लूट ले. वे मन्दिर जो राजनीतिक सत्ता तथा वैधता के केन्द्र नहीं थे या यदि थे तो शासक द्वारा त्याग दिए गए थे, उन मन्दिरों का अपवित्रीकरण नहीं किया गया. इसका श्रेष्ठ प्रतिमान खजुराहो के मन्दिर हैं क्योंकि चन्देलों ने उन्हें त्याग दिया था.

मूर्ति भंजन को इस्लाम धर्म का अनिवार्य सार तत्व मानकर मन्दिरों के ध्वंस की व्याख्या करना उचित नहीं होगा. यह सच है कि फारसी स्रोत मूर्ति पूजा की निन्दा करते हैं. परन्तु यह भी सत्य है कि छठी शताब्दी ईसवी के बाद शत्रु राजाओं द्वारा संरक्षित मूर्तियों पर आक्रमण भारत के राजनीतिक व्यवहार का अभिन्न अंग बन चुका था. इन मन्दिरों के मूर्ति-पुंज राजाओं व देवताओं की पारस्परिक निर्भरता प्रदर्शित करते थे. इस रूप में मन्दिर भी राजनीतिक संस्थाएं हो गए थे. रिचर्ड एम. डेविस के अनुसार प्रारम्भिक मध्य युगीन इतिहास मन्दिरों के अपवित्रीकरण की घटनाओं से पटा पड़ा है. 642 ई. में पल्लव राजा नरसिंह वर्मन ने चालुक्यों की राजधानी वातापी से गणेश प्रतिमा को लूटा.

पचास वर्ष बाद चालुक्यों ने उत्तर भारत में गंगा-यमुना की मूर्तियां लूटकर दक्षिण में स्थापित की. आठवीं सदी से यह सिलसिला बराबर चलता रहा. 12वीं और 13वीं शताब्दी में परमार वंश ने गुजरात के जैन मन्दिरों को लूटा. यह परिपाटी तुर्कों द्वारा भारत विजय के बाद भी चलती रही. 1460 में उड़ीसा नरेश कपिलदेव ने कावेरी मुहाने के शैव व वैष्णव मन्दिरों को लूटा. 1514 में कृष्णदेव राय ने उदयगिरि से बालकृष्ण की मूर्ति को लूटा. यहां राज-मन्दिरों को लूटकर राष्ट्र देवता को उठाकर ले जाना मुख्य परिपाटी के रूप में दिखाई देता है. संक्षेप में, मुस्लिम तुर्कों के आने के बहुत पहले ही मन्दिर राज-सत्ता के संघर्ष के केन्द्र बिन्दु हुआ करते थे. इसमें आश्चर्य नहीं किया जा सकता है कि प्रारंभिक मध्ययुग में अपने शासन की स्थापना के प्रयासों के क्रम में तुर्की हमलावरों ने पूर्व स्थापित परम्पराओं को ही आगे बढ़ाया. मन्दिरों को अपवित्र किए जाने के मामले सामान्यत: उन्हीं स्थानों पर घटित हुए जो बढ़ रही सैन्य शक्ति के छोर पर अवस्थित थे.

1320 में तुगलक वंश ने प्रायद्वीपीय भारत (दक्षिण भारत) में स्थायी शासन की नींव डाली. दिल्ली में तुगलक वंश की कमजोरी के कारण क्षेत्रीय शासकों की बाढ़-सी आ गई. वे अपने स्वतन्त्र राज्य स्थापित करने तथा सीमा विस्तार में जुट पड़े जिसका परिणाम एक बार पुन: मन्दिरों की तोड़फोड़, अपवित्रीकरण के रूप में सामने आया. 1526 में बाबर ने मुगलवंश की स्थापना के समय मन्दिरों का अपवित्रीकरण तथा मूर्ति भंजन क्यों नहीं किया ? इसका सीधा-सा उत्तर है कि गैर हिन्दू होने के कारण अफगानों की सम्प्रभुता में राज-मन्दिर में अवस्थित देवता की सहभागिता का कदापि प्रश्न ही नहीं उठता था. सम्भवत: यही कारण था कि प्रारम्भिक मुगल शासकों द्वारा अयोध्या में या कहीं भी मन्दिरों के अपवित्रीकरण का कोई पक्का साक्ष्य नहीं मिलता है.

एस. के. बनर्जी (1936) के अनुसार बाबार के अधिकारी मीर बाकी ने अयोध्या में राम जन्म भूमि पर निर्मित एक मन्दिर को नष्ट किया और उस स्थान पर बाबरी मस्जिद बनवाई. मस्जिद के शिलालेख पर मात्र यही अंकित है कि बाबर ने निर्माण की अनुमति दी, मीर बाकी ने निर्माण किया. शिलालेख में इसे ‘दिव्य सत्ताओं के अवतरण के स्थल’ (महतिब-इ-कुदसियां) के रूप में चित्रित किया गया है. यह मस्जिद का विवरण है न कि उस स्थल पर बनी पहले की किसी इमारत का. सामान्यत: मन्दिर अपवित्रीकरण की घटनाएं सैन्य संघर्षों के सन्दर्भ में घटित हुईं. जब भारतीय मुस्लिम राज्यों का प्रवेश गैर-मुस्लिम राज्यों में हुआ तो ऐसे मन्दिरों को अपवित्र किया गया जो शत्रु सत्ता के विधायक होते थे. कभी-कभी विजय चिन्ह् के रूप में मूर्तियों को उठा लिया जाता था. जैसे – 1299 में उलुहा खां ने सोमनाथ मन्दिर की मूर्ति, 1359 में फिरोज तुगलक ने पुरी के जगन्नाथ मन्दिर की मूर्ति को उठवा लिया था.

मन्दिर के अपवित्रीकरण का चाहे जो भी रूप रहा हो निशाने पर जनता कदापि नहीं होती थी. 1691 में कूच बिहार पर मुगल आधिपत्य के बाद एक प्रमुख काज़ी ने पराजित राजा भीम नारायण के कोष को जब्त करने, राष्ट्र-देवता को नष्ट करने का आदेश दिया पर सैनिकों को चेतावनी दी कि जो आम जनता की सम्पत्ति को हाथ लगाता पकड़ा जाएगा उसके हाथ, नाक व कान काट लिए जाएंगे. जिन राज्यों को मुस्लिम साम्राज्य में मिला लिया जाता था उनके भीतर स्थित मन्दिरों से छेड़छाड़ नहीं की जाती थी. एक संस्कृत शिलालेख के अनुसार 1325 में मोहम्मद बिन तुगलक ने दक्षिण में शिव मन्दिर की मरम्मत करवाई. कश्मीर के सुल्तान शिहाब-अल-दीन (1355-73) ने अपने हिन्दू मन्त्री को इसलिए फटकार लगायी क्योंकि उसने हिन्दू और बौद्ध मूर्तियों को चटपट गलाकर नगद प्राप्त करने का सुझाव दिया था. राजा द्वारा धर्म को संरक्षण दिए जाने के प्रश्न पर सुल्तान ने हिन्दू पुराणों के महापुरुषों के उदाहरण देते हुए कहा था – “कुछ राजाओं ने देवमूर्तियां स्थापित करके, कुछ ने पूजन करके और कुछ ने रख रखाव करके ख्याति अर्जित की, लेकिन कुछ ने मूर्तियां तोड़कर कितना घोर कुकृत्य किया है.”

मुगल शहंशाहों के ज़माने में विजयोपरान्त मन्दिरों की सुरक्षा तथा उनके संरक्षण का प्रचलन था. अकबर (1556-1605) के शासन काल में साम्राज्य के क्षेत्राधिकार के अन्दर के मन्दिरों को राज-सम्पत्ति माना जाने लगा तथा मन्दिरों के ढांचों तथा पुजारियों की रक्षा करने का जिम्मा लिया गया और हिन्दू धार्मिक संस्थाओं का उपयोग साम्राज्य के हित में किया जाने लगा. अकबर ने अपने शासन काल में मन्दिरों के भव्य निर्माण की अनुमति दी, राजा मान सिंह द्वारा संरक्षित वृन्दावन का गोविन्द देव मन्दिर इसका श्रेष्ठ प्रतिमान है. अकबर की परंपरा को उसके उत्तराधिकारी ने आगे बढ़ाया और ऐसी धारणाएं औरंगजेब के शासन काल (1658-1707) तक बरकरार रहीं. 1659 में औरंगजेब ने बनारस के स्थानीय पदाधिकारियों को आदेश दिया कि मन्दिरों तथा ब्राह्यण पुजारियों को संरक्षण प्रदान किया जाए परन्तु उसने यह भी जोड़ा कि नए मन्दिर नहीं बनाए जाएंगे.

मुस्लिम साम्राज्य में जब कोई हिन्दू पदाधिकारी बगावत करता था तो उसके द्वारा संरक्षित मन्दिरों को अपवित्र कर दिया जाता था, मूर्तियों को तोड़ दिया जाता था या विजय चिन्हय् के रूप में उन्हें लूट लिया जाता था. 1748 में बहमनी राज्य के दुर्ग की रक्षक सेना, 1613 में राणा अमर सिंह के चाचा, 1669 में जय सिंह, 1635 में ओरछा नरेश जज्झर सिंह और 1670 में जाटों ने बगावत की. इन सभी बगावतों का परिणाम मूर्तियों के भंजन तथा मन्दिरों के अपवित्रीकरण के रूप में सामने आया. पर मुस्लिम अधिकारियों द्वारा बगावत पर उन्हें वांछित दण्ड दिया जाता था और यदि उनके द्वारा संरक्षित कोई मस्जिद या मज़ार होती थी तो साम्राज्य द्वारा उन्हें तुरन्त उसे राजाश्रय प्रदान किया जाता था न कि उनका विखण्डन जैसे- 1526 में मुगलों की अफ़गानों पर जीत के समय मज़ारों तथा मस्जिदों को तत्काल संरक्षण प्रदान किया गया और 1574 में बंगाल विजय के समय भी इसका अनुसरण किया गया. राजनीतिक दृष्टि से मन्दिर सत्ता के केन्द्र होते थे, सम्प्रभुता के प्रतीक होते थे.शासक और मन्दिर घनिष्ठ रूप से सम्बन्धित थे. दूसरी तरफ मस्जिदों की कोई राजनीतिक हैसियत नहीं थी. दरगाहों में पूजित देवता तथा बादशाहों का कोई निजी रिश्ता नहीं होता था.

प्राय: आरोप लगता है कि तेरहवीं शताब्दी से अठारहवीं शताब्दी तक मुस्लिम राज्य यहूदी-इस्लाम मूर्ति भंजन के धर्मशास्त्र या धर्मान्धता से प्रेरित रहे तथा महज लूट के लालच से प्रेरित होकर मन्दिरों को खण्डित व विखण्डित करते रहे. परन्तु इस प्रकार के साक्ष्य 1192 के कालखण्ड के वृतान्तों में दृष्टिगोचर नहीं होते. यदि मन्दिर अपवित्रीकरण की प्ररेणा मूर्तिभंजन के धर्मशास्त्र से मिली होती तो भारत में अवस्थित सभी मन्दिरों को तोड़ दिया गया होता.

रिचर्ड एम. ईटन : प्रस्तुत लेख मूलरूप से ‘फ्रंटलाइन’, अंक 17, संख्या 25, 9-22 दिसम्बर 2000 में प्रकाशित हुआ. कालान्तर में इसका हिन्दी अनुवाद श्री नवल किशोर द्वारा ‘संधान’ में प्रकाशित हुआ. ‘फ्रन्टलाइन’ व ‘संधान’ दोनों से साभार उदृधृत. मूल लेख ‘टेम्पिल डीसेक्रेशन इन प्री-मार्डन इंडिया’ शीर्षक से प्रकाशित.

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